Mecanismos moleculares do efeito citotóxico de FGF2 em células transformadas por RAS / Molecular mechanisms of the cytotoxic effect of FGF2 in rastransformed cells

O FGF2 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 2) é um clássico fator peptídico de crescimento que ativa vias intracelulares de sinalização molecular promovendo a transição G0 → G1 e o comprometimento com o ciclo celular. Não surpreendentemente, seus papéis pró-tumoral e angiogênico estão bem caracterizados e estabelecidos na literatura. No entanto, um crescente corpo de evidências tem indicado que o FGF2 também pode exercer efeitos anti-tumorais in vitro e in vivo, em modelos murinos e também humanos. Neste contexto, nosso grupo publicou em 2008 que o FGF2 exerce um efeito antiproliferativo seletivo em células murinas malignas dependentes de alta atividade de K-Ras e H-Ras. Os genes ras compõem a família de oncogenes mais frequentemente mutada em tumores malignos humanos, alcançando aproximadamente 30% de todos os casos. O desenvolvimento de terapias contra tumores dependentes de Ras fracassou, apesar dos intensos esforços e investimentos desde a descoberta em 1982 de suas mutações ativadoras em múltiplos cânceres. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desvendar os mecanismos moleculares pelo quais o FGF2 inibe irreversivelmente a proliferação de células malignas dependentes da atividade de Ras, empregando como modelos experimentais a linhagem murina Y1 de células adrenocorticais, e 4 linhagens humanas derivadas de sarcomas de Ewing. Identificamos que o efeito citotóxico do FGF2 não se processa por um mecanismo novo e independente das viasproliferativas classicamente ativadas por fatores peptídicos de crescimento. Ao contrário, seu efeito tóxico é resultado de sinalização mitogênica exagerada decorrente de estimulação sustentada por FGF2. A ativação da via de MAPK, principal sinalização mitogênica intracelular, a níveis elevados e sustentados provoca estresse mitogênico, que se propaga para a fase S na forma de estresse replicativo. Nesta situação, a célula passa a depender exageradamente da sinalização protetora de ATR, de modo que a combinação de estimulação com FGF2 e inibição de ATR foi altamente letal para as células malignas dependentes de Ras empregadas neste trabalho. Também analisamos as bases moleculares de resistência a FGF2 exibida por células Y1 anteriormente selecionadas para resistir ao efeito tóxico do FGF2 (Y1FRs). Descobrimos que a pressão seletiva do FGF2 não teve efeito na expressão de seus receptores, mas provocou a eliminação de um dos dois cromossomos que portam a amplificação gênica de ras nesta linhagem, enquanto o segundo cromossomo foi mantido por ser a única fonte de genes ribossomais ativos. Suas cópias de ras, no entanto, mostraram-se transcricionalmente silenciadas. Além disso, as sublinhagens Y1FRs não expressam o principal RasGEF, GRP4, encontrado nas células parentais Y1, o que pode ter influenciado o surgimento do fenótipo resistente ao FGF2. As linhagens resistentes mostraram grande redução no número de cromossomos e aumento da frequência de fusões entre cromossomos não homólogos em relação às células parentais

FGF2 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 2) is a classic peptide growth factor that activates intracellular molecular signaling pathways promoting the G0 → G1 transition and cell cycle commitment. Not surprisingly, its pro-tumor and angiogenic roles are well characterized and established in the literature. However, a growing body of evidence has indicated that FGF2 may also exert anti-tumor effects in vitro and in vivo in murine and human models. In this context, our group reported in 2008 that FGF2 exerts a selective antiproliferative effect in murine cells dependent on high activity of K-Ras and H-Ras. Ras genes make up the most frequently mutated oncogene family in human malignant tumors, reaching approximately 30% of all cases. The development of therapies against Ras-dependent tumors has failed despite intense efforts and investments since the discovery in 1982 of its activating mutations in multiple cancers. The objective of this work was to uncover the molecular mechanisms by which FGF2 irreversibly inhibits the proliferation of malignant cells dependent on Ras activity, using as experimental models the Y1 murine lineage of adrenocortical malignant cells and 4 human lineages derived from Ewing sarcomas. We showed that the cytotoxic effect of FGF2 did not involve novel cell cycle regulatory pathways; instead, this cytotoxic effect is a result of sustainedhyper mitogenic stimulation by FGF2. Activation of the KRas/MAPK pathway, the major intracellular mitogenic signaling, at high and sustained levels provokes mitogenic stress, which is propagated to S phase as replicative stress. In this situation, the cell dependence on the ATR protective signaling is enhanced, so that the combination of stimulation with FGF2 and inhibition of ATR was highly lethal for the Ras dependent malignant cells employed in this work. We also analyzed the molecular basis of FGF2 resistance exhibited by Y1 cells previously selected for resistance to FGF2. We found that the selective pressure of FGF2 had no effect on the expression of its receptors but promoted the elimination of one of the two marker chromosomes that carry the K-ras amplified copies, while the second chromosome was maintained because it is the only source of active ribosomal genes; however, its K-ras amplified copies were transcriptionally silenced. In addition, the Y1FRs sublines did not express the main RasGEF, GRP4, found in the parental Y1 cells, which might have played a role in the emergence of the FGF2-resistant phenotype. The resistant Y1FRs sublines showed a large reduction in chromosome numbers and increased frequency of fusions between non-homologous chromosomes in relation to parental cells

Mixed Periapical Lesion: An Atypical Radicular Cyst with Extensive Calcifications

The radicular cyst is an inflammatory odontogenic cyst of endodontic origin. Radiographically, the lesion appears as a periapical radiolucent image. This report describes a very rare case of a mixed periapical radiographic image diagnosed as a radicular cyst. A 37-year-old female patient presented a mixed, well-circumscribed image located in the periapical region of the left maxillary central incisor, which presented unsatisfactory endodontic treatment. Microscopic examination revealed a cavity lined by non-keratinized squamous epithelium and extensive calcifications in the cystic lumen and lining epithelium. Diagnosis of radicular cyst with extensive calcifications was established. Endodontic retreatment was performed and no radiographic signs of recurrence were observed 18 months after treatment. Although very rare, a radicular cyst should be considered in the differential diagnosis of a mixed periapical image associated to teeth with pulp necrosis.

O cisto radicular é um cisto odontogênico inflamatório de origem endodôntica. Radiograficamente, a lesão se apresenta como uma imagem radiolúcida periapical. Este relato descreve um caso muito raro de uma imagem radiográfica periapical mista diagnosticada como cisto radicular. Uma paciente de 37 anos de idade, do gênero feminino, apresentava uma imagem mista, bem circunscrita, localizada na região periapical do incisivo central superior esquerdo, que apresentava tratamento endodôntico insatisfatório. Avaliação microscópica revelou uma cavidade revestida por epitélio escamoso não-queratinizado e calcificações extensas na cavidade cística e revestimento epitelial. O diagnóstico de cisto radicular com extensas calcificações foi estabelecido. Retratamento endodôntico foi realizado e não foram observados sinais radiográficos de recorrência da lesão após 18 meses de tratamento. Embora muito raro, um cisto radicular deve ser considerado no diagnóstico diferencial de uma imagem periapical mista associada a dentes com necrose pulpar.

Spectrum of K ras mutations in Pakistani colorectal cancer patients

The incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) is increasing daily worldwide. Although different aspects of CRC have been studied in other parts of the world, relatively little or almost no information is available in Pakistan about different aspects of this disease at the molecular level. The present study was aimed at determining the frequency and prevalence of K ras gene mutations in Pakistani CRC patients. Tissue and blood samples of 150 CRC patients (64% male and 36% female) were used for PCR amplification of K ras and detection of mutations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, and nucleotide sequencing. The K ras mutation frequency was found to be 13%, and the most prevalent mutations were found at codons 12 and 13. A novel mutation was also found at codon 31. The dominant mutation observed was a G to A transition. Female patients were more susceptible to K ras mutations, and these mutations were predominant in patients with a nonmetastatic stage of CRC. No significant differences in the prevalence of K ras mutations were observed for patient age, gender, or tumor type. It can be inferred from this study that Pakistani CRC patients have a lower frequency of K ras mutations compared to those observed in other parts of the world, and that K ras mutations seemed to be significantly associated with female patients.

Efeito dual de FGF2 e PMA em células HEK 293 transformadas por H-rasV12 / Dual effects of FGF2 and PMA on H-rasV12 transformed HEK293 cell line

Sabe-se há décadas que mutações nos genes ras estão presentes em cerca de 20% dos cânceres humanos, mas o desenvolvimento de terapias eficazes para o tratamento de câncer dependente dos oncogenes ras permanece um desafio científico importante. Nesse contexto, o nosso grupo publicou recentemente resultados interessantes mostrando que FGF2 exógeno ou PMA, contrariamente à expectativa geral, inibem a proliferação de células de camundongo malignas dependentes dos oncogenes H- ou K-Ras. Para dar continuidade a estes estudos o projeto desta tese foi planejado para investigar os mecanismos subjacentes a possíveis efeitos citotóxicos de FGF2 e PMA em células humanas transformadas por ras. Para esse fim, a linhagem humana imortalizada HEK 293 foi condicionalmente transformada pela expressão ectópica da construção quimérica de DNA ER:H-rasV12, que codifica a oncoproteína de fusão ER:H-RasV12, cuja atividade é induzível por 4-hidroxi-tamoxifen (4OHT). Essa abordagem nos permitiu verificar os efeitos de FGF2 e PMA em sublinhagens HEK/ER:HrasV12 fenotipicamente "normais" ou transformadas por níveis crescentes da oncoproteína H-RasV12. Os principais resultados mostraram que tanto FGF2 como PMA tem efeito dual promovendo ou inibindo a proliferação das células transformadas em função da concentração intracelular crescente de H-RasV12. Ensaios de crescimento de colônias em suspensão de agarose mostraram que: a) as células parentais HEK293 não desenvolveram colônias mesmo quando tratadas com FGF2 ou PMA, resultados que estão de acordo com seu fenótipo não tumoral; b) mas, as sublinhagens HEK/ER:HrasV12 deram origem a colônias mesmo quando tratadas com concentrações pequenas de 4OHT, que condicionaram níveis intracelulares baixos de ER:HRasV12; nestas condições experimentais, FGF2 foi um forte promotor do crescimento de colônias, condizente com sua reconhecida atividade promotora do crescimento de células tumorais em suspensão; ainda nestas condições, PMA não teve efeito significante sobre o crescimento de colônias; c) coerentemente, concentrações elevadas de 4-OHT levaram aos níveis intracelulares mais altos de ER:HRasV12 e, por conseguinte, a desenvolvimento máximo de colônias de células HEK/ER:HrasV12, no entanto, nestas condições, ambos FGF2 e PMA inibiram completamente o crescimento de colônias. Por outro lado, transformação de HEK293 com um vetor de expressão constitutiva de HrasV12 levou à seleção e isolamento das sublinhagens tumorais HEK/HrasV12, cujo fenótipo se caracterizou por: a) nenhum efeito de FGF2 sobre a sua proliferação e b) forte inibição de sua proliferação por PMA. A ação citotóxica de PMA exclusivamente observada em células HEK 293 transformadas por H-rasV12 se caracterizou por: a) total dependência de PKC, provavelmente mediada pela ativação proteolítica específica de PKC δ; b) envolvimento de níveis elevados e sustentados de ROS com disparo tardio de apoptose

It is known for nearly 20 years that mutated ras oncogenes are found in 20% of human malignancies, however efficacious therapies are not yet available for Ras-driven cancer. Along of these lines, our group recently published provocative results showing, against common belief, that FGF2 and PMA inhibited proliferation of Ras-dependent malignant mouse cells. Aiming to gain insight into this intriguing phenomenon, the present thesis project was planned to investigate the possible cytotoxicity of FGF2 and PMA in human Ras-driven malignant cells. To this end an immortalized non-tumorigenic human cell line (HEK293) was stably transformed with the DNA construction ER:H-rasV12, which encodes the fusion protein ER:H-RasV12, whose activity requires activation by 4-hidroxitamoxifen (4-OHT). This approach allowed us to evaluate FGF2 and PMA effects on HEK/ER:HrasV12 sublines under switching from "normal" to transformed phenotypes upon 4-OHT induction. Our main results have shown that both FGF2 and PMA displayed dual effects promoting or inhibiting proliferation of HEK/ER:HrasV12 cells in function of ER:HRasV12 intracellular levels. Clonogenic assays in agarose suspension have shown: a) parental HEK293 line did not develop colonies under FGF2 and PMA treatment or not, in agreement with its non-tumorigenic nature; b) however, HEK/ER:HrasV12 sublines developed colonies even under low 4-OHT concentrations, which led to low ER:HRasV12 intracellular levels; under these conditions FGF2 strongly promoted colony growth and PMA had no effect; c) furthermore, in HEK/ER:HrasV12 sublines, elevated 4-OHT concentrations led to high ER:HRasV12 intracellular levels and maximal colony growth; but, under these experimental conditions both FGF2 and PMA abolished colony growth. On the other hand, HEK293 transformation with a vector that constitutively express HrasV12 yielded HEK/ER:HrasV12 sublines displaying the following phenotypic traits: a) non FGF2 effects on proliferation and b) severe proliferation inhibition by PMA. PMA toxicity, exclusively observed in HrasV12 -transformed HEK293 cells, was characterized by: a) total dependency on PKC, likely mediated by specific proteolytic activation of PKCδ; b) involvement of high and sustained ROS levels correlated with late apoptosis triggering

Caracteres clínico-patológicos y perfil genético en el carcinoma colorrectal / Clinical-pathological features and gene profile in colorectal cancer

El cáncer colorrectal es el tercer cáncer más frecuente en hombres y el segundo más frecuente en mujeres, con una incidencia mundial aproximada de 1.2 millones de casos nuevos por año. Nuestro objetivo primario fue estudiar la relación existente entre las características clínico-histológicas en individuos con cáncer colorrectal y el estado mutacional de los codones 12 y 13 del gen KRAS (7 mutaciones validadas), con el fin de hallar un marcador histopatológico para los tumores mutados. El objetivo secundario fue determinar cuántos pacientes tenían mutaciones adicionales en los codones 15 y 61 del gen KRAS y 600 del gen BRAF que podrían modificar el fenotipo tumoral. Fueron seleccionados 60 individuos con cáncer colorrectal (30 wild-type y 30 con mutaciones validadas en los codones 12 y 13 del gen KRAS). Se amplificaron y secuenciaron del gen KRAS los exones 2 y 3, y del gen BRAF el exón 15. La información recolectada se examinó mediante un análisis descriptivo, análisis univariado y/o análisis multivariado, según correspondiese. En conclusión, no se encontró relación entre las características clínico-histológicas de los tumores de individuos con diagnóstico de cáncer colorrectal y el estado mutacional de los codones 12 y 13 del gen KRAS. No hallamos un marcador histopatológico para los tumores mutados. En pacientes con adenocarcinomas colorrectales avanzados y KRAS wild-type resulta de interés considerar el estudio del codón 600 del gen BRAF.

Colorectal cancer is the third most frequent cancer in men and the second most frequent in women, with a worldwide incidence of approximately 1.2 million new cases per year. Our primary objective was to study the relationship between clinical and histological features of individuals with colorectal cancer and the mutational status of codons 12 and 13 of the KRAS gene (7 validated mutations), in order to find a histopathological marker to mutated tumors. The secondary objective was to determine how many patients had additional mutations in codons 15 and 61 of the KRAS gene, and codon 600 of the BRAF gene, which could modify the tumor phenotype. Sixty individuals with colorectal cancer (30 wild-type subjects and 30 with validated mutations in codons 12 and 13 of the KRAS gene) were selected. Exons 2 and 3 of the KRAS gene, and exon 15 of the BRAF gene were amplified and sequenced. The data collected were reviewed by a descriptive, univariate and/or multivariate analysis, as appropriate. In conclusion, no relation was found between clinical and histological features of individuals with colorectal cancer and their mutational status for codons 12 and 13 of the KRAS gene. This suggests that those easily available data do not allow predicting the response to anti-EGFR therapy. In patients with advanced colorectal adenocarcinomas and KRAS wild-type status, further study of codon 600 of the BRAF gene could be required.

Analysis of p53, K-ras gene mutation & Helicobacter pylori infection in patients with gastric cancer & peptic ulcer disease at a tertiary care hospital in north India.

Background & objectives: Mutations in the oncogene and tumour suppressor genes play an important role in carcinogenesis. We investigated the association of p53 and K-ras gene mutation and Helicobacter pylori infection in patients with gastric cancer (GC) and peptic ulcer disease (PUD) attending a tertiary care hospital in north India. Methods: In total, 348 adult patients [62 GC, 45 PUD and 241 non-ulcer dyspepsia (NUD)] who underwent an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy were enrolled. H. pylori infection was diagnosed by rapid urease test, culture, histopathology and PCR. Mutation in the exon 5-8 of p53 gene was analyzed by PCR-single stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) and confirmed by sequence analysis. K-ras gene codon 12 mutation was analyzed by PCR-based restriction fragment length polymorphism. Results: Overall p53 gene mutation was found in 4.6 per cent of the study population, and its distribution in GC, PUD and NUD was 21, 4.4 and 0.4 per cent, respectively. p53 gene mutation was significantly higher in patients with GC than PUD (P<0.05) and NUD (P<0.001). No difference in p53 gene mutation was observed between H. pylori infected and non-infected individuals. K-ras gene mutation was absent in all the patients. Interpretation & conclusions: Our results show that p53 gene mutation may be associated with gastric carcinogenesis independent to H. pylori infection and absence of K-ras gene mutation questions its role in the pathogenesis of GC and PUD in Indian patients.

Mutation pattern of K-ras gene in colorectal cancer patients of Kashmir: A report.

Background and Aim: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the leading malignancies worldwide. CRC has been reported to show geographical variation in its incidence, even within areas of ethnic homogeneity. The aim of this study is to identify K-ras gene mutations in CRC patients among the Kashmiri population, and to assess whether they are linked with the clinicopathological parameters. Materials and Methods: Paired tumor and normal tissue samples were collected from a consecutive series of 53 patients undergoing resective surgery for CRC. In addition blood was also collected from all the cases for ruling out germline mutation. Results: Colorectal patients, 22.64% (12 of 53), presented with mutations in K-ras constituting 13 missense mutations out of which 11 were G→A transition, one G→C transversion, and one G→T transversion. 61.5% percent of the mutations occurred in codon 12 and 38.5% in codon 13. One tumor contained missense mutations in both codons. K-ras mutations were significantly associated with advanced Dukes' stage (P < 0.05) and positive lymph node status (P < 0.05). Moreover Codon 12 K-ras mutations were associated with mucinous histotype (P < 0.05). Comparison of the mutation profile with other high-risk areas reflected both mucinous histotype differences and similarities indicating coexposure to a unique set of risk factors. Conclusion: Mutation of the K-ras gene is one of the commonest genetic changes in the development of human CRC, but it occurs in a rather low frequency in Kashmiri population.

Mecanismos moleculares e celulares de citotoxicidade de FGF2 parácrino em células tumorais dependentes de Ras / Molecular and cellular mechanisms of paracrine FGF2 citotoxicity in Ras-driven tumor cells

Descrevemos, recentemente, que FGF2 parácrino dispara senescência nas linhagens celulares murinas Y1 e 3T3-B61, transformadas malignamente por Ras, mas sem ativação das vias apoptóticas (Costa et al., 2008). Nesta tese, estudamos os mecanismos celulares e moleculares desta resposta de estresse irreversível, disparada por FGF2. Focalizamos, principalmente, a linhagem Y1, que carrega uma amplificação do oncogene Kras, mas apresenta um controle parcial da transição G0/G1→ S do ciclo celular. Por estas características fenotípicas, as células Y1 foram utilizadas no estudo dos mecanismos das ações antagônicas de FGF2, isto é, a atividade mitogênica clássica e a nova ação citotóxica que causa senescência. Análises de citometria de fluxo e marcação com BrdU mostraram que FGF2 promove a transição G0/G1→ S (atividade mitogênica), mas bloqueia a progressão através de S e G2/M (atividade antimitogênica). Ensaios de viabilidade celular (MTS e Cyto-Tox) demonstraram que, durante o bloqueio do ciclo celular por FGF2, as células permanecem íntegras e metabolicamente ativas, embora exibam alterações morfológicas, que sugerem estresse celular. Além disso, experimentos de tomada de 3H-timidina em DNA evidenciaram que, já nas primeiras horas de G1, FGF2 dispara um processo antimitogênico que só tardiamente vai se manifestar na fase S, bloqueando a síntese de DNA...

Mutations of KRAS and TP53 in a minor proportion of Opisthorchis viverrini-associated cholangiocarcinomas in a hamster model.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: KRAS oncogene and TP53 tumor suppressor gene have been known as common genes involving in many cancers including cholangiocarcinoma (CCC). Activation of these genes could lead to uncontrolled proliferation and cancer ultimately. The aim of this study was to investigate mutation of KRAS exon 1 and TP53 exon 5-8 in Opisthorchis viverrini (OV)-induced cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) in a hamster model. METHODS: Twenty-seven CCAs were obtained from Syrian golden hamsters induced by OV infection and N-nitrosodimethylnitrosamine (N-NDDM) administration. The tumor tissues were processed for histopathology. Genomic DNA extracted from paraffin sections by microdissection was amplified for KRAS exon 1 and TP53 exon 5-8 mutations by PCR-direct sequencing. RESULTS: Histopathologically, the tumors were classified into tubular (81.5%, 22/27), papillary (3.7%, 1/27), mucinous (3.7%, 1/27) and mixed types (11.1%, 3/27). Of the 27 CCAs, PCR-direct sequencing of KRAS showed G[see text]A transition at codon 37 exon 1 in one CCA sample (3.70%). Point mutations of p53 exon 6 (G[see text]C transversion at codon 119 and 218 and A[see text]C transversion at codon 217) were found in 3 CCA samples (11.1%). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that mutation of TP53 particularly at exon 6 may be involved in cholangiocarcinogenesis and a novel mutation of KRAS exon 1 was firstly reported in OV-induced hamster CCA.

c-Ki-ras oncogene amplification and FGF2 signaling pathways in the mouse Y1 adrenocortical cell line

A linhagem tumoral Y1, originada de adrenocórtex decamundongo responde a FGF2 (Fator de Crescimento de Fibroblasto), possui o proto-oncogene c-ki-ras amplificado e a proteína c-Ki-Ras super-expressa e ativa (c-Ki-Ras-GTP). Em trabalhos anteriores mostramos que esta lesão genética causa ativação constitutiva da via de sinalização: c-Ki-Ras-GTP®PI3K®Akt (Forti et al. 2002). Por outro lado, a ativação da via de Raf® MEK®ERK, permanece estritamente dependente de estímulos de FGF2 (Rocha et al. 2003). Neste trabalho mostramos, primeiro, que estímulos de FGF2 ativam transientemente a via c-Ki-Ras-GTP®PI3K®Akt para níveis superiores aos expressos constitutivamente. Segundo, a ativação transiente de c-Ki-Ras-GTP por FGF2 permite a ativação da via de ERK1/2. Terceiro, os níveis basais elevados de c-Ki-Ras-GTP inibem a ativação da proteína c-H-Ras, pois células Y1 expressando o mutante negativo RasN17 apresentam uma rápida e transiente ativação de c-H-Ras-GTP após tratamentos de FGF2. Estes estudos das vias de sinalização acionadas por FGF2 em células adrenais tumorais Y1 podem fornecer novos alvos para o desenvolvimento de drogas de interesse para terapia oncogênica.

Mutación del gen K-ras en tumores pancreático-biliares / Frequency of K-ras mutation in biliary and pancreatic tumors

Background: The ras gene family (H-ras, N-ras and K-ras) are oncogenes that mutate frequently in human cancer, specially in tumors of the biliary tract and pancreas. Aim: To determine the frequency of K-ras gene codon 12 mutation in pancreatic and biliary tumors. Material and Methods: Samples of 35 gallbladder, 15 ampulla of Vater, 10 biliary tract and 9 pancreatic tumors, were analyzed. The tumor tissue was microdissected from paraffin embedded biopsies. The mutation was detected by a combination of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Results: Overall, 46% of samples had K-ras gene mutations. Mutation frequency was 80, 56, 50 and 29% for ampulla of Vater, pancreatic, biliary tract and gallbladder tumors, respectively. When compared with the rest, gallbladder tumors had a significantly lower frequency of the mutation. Median survival for biliary tract tumors was 6 months, compared with 65 months for gallbladder tumors (p <0.05). Conclusions: Gallbladder carcinoma had the lower frequency of K-ras mutation, when compared with pancreatic, biliary tract and ampulla of Vater tumors.

Patogênese dos tumores diferenciados da tiróide (papilífero e folicular) / Pathogenesis of differentiated thyroid cancer (papillary and follicular)

Os carcinomas diferenciados da tiróide, o papilífero (PTC) e o folicular (FTC) são as neoplasias endócrinas mais comuns. Descobertas recentes esclareceram diversos aspectos de sua patogênese, analisados nesta revisão. No PTC, uma única mutação no gene BRAF (o gene da Raf quinase tipo B) (V600E) é responsável pela doença em 40-50% dos pacientes, especialmente os mais velhos e os que apresentam subtipos histológicos mais agressivos. Tendo em vista esses fatores prognósticos da mutação BRAF, o uso de sua pesquisa no material proveniente do exame citológico de tiróide pode ser útil para fins de diagnóstico e conduta. A outra causa freqüente de PTC são os rearranjos RET/PTC, decorrentes da quebra e fusão do domínio TK intra-celular de RET com fragmentos 5’ de diversos genes, resultando num gene quimérico que produz uma proteína que apresenta atividade constitutiva de uma tirosina quinase de RET, presentes em 20-30% dos pacientes, especialmente os mais jovens ou que receberam radiação. Já a patogênese do FTC é menos compreendida. Descreve-se a participação do gene decorrente da fusão entre PAX8 e PPARg (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor g) em 30-50% dos pacientes com este tumor; entretanto, esta fusão pode ocorrer também em adenomas foliculares. Desta forma, ainda não há evidência completa de que PAX8-PPARg seja a causa do FTC. Outro achado no FTC são as mutações no gene RAS; quando ocorrem mutações do RAS não acontece o rearranjo PAX8-PPARg. Outra possível causa de FTC é a perda ou expressão exagerada de uma série de genes, alguns demonstrados por técnicas de expressão diferencial de genes, como TRg, PTEN, PKAR1A, DDIT3, ARG2, ITM1 e C1orf24.

Mutación del gen K-ras en el cáncer de la vesícula biliar / K-ras gene mutation in gallbladder carcinoma

Background: Different K-ras mutation frequencies in gallbladder cancer have been reported. Aim: To study the frequency of K-ras gene mutations in advanced gallbladder carcinoma not associated to anomalous junction of pancreatic-biliary duct (AJPBD). Material and methods: 33 formalin fixed paraffin embedded samples of gallbladder carcinoma (30 women, age range 32-86 years) were selected. Pancreatic cancer tissue with K-ras mutations was used as control. DNA was extracted from the histological section by mean of microdissection and K-ras mutations in codon 12 were detected by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), using previously reported technique. Results: Most cases were poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas. K-ras mutation was detected in 10 cases (30%) samples. No differences in K-ras mutation frequency between subserous and serous tumors were detected and no relation between histological features and the mutation was observed. Conclusions: K-ras mutation in codon 12 is present in 30% in our advanced gallbladder carcinomas. The study of K-ras mutation in preneoplastic lesions and early carcinomas will be important to determine the role of this gene in the gallbladder carcinogenesis in Chile (Rev Méd Chile 2004; 132: 955-60).

Incidência de mutação no códon 12 do protoncogene K-ras em carcinoma de próstata humana em uma amostra da população brasileira / The incidence of mutation in codon 12 of the k-ras proto-oncogene in human prostate carcinoma with a Brazilian population sample

Com o intuito de estudar a participação do gene ras ativado na tumorigênese humana, pesquisamos a freqüência de mutação pontual no códon 12 do gene K-ras em espécimes cirúrgicos de pacientes portadores de câncer de próstata. Foi utilizado um grupo controle de pacientes com hiperplasia prostática benigna (HPB). Os cortes destinados ao estudo foram submetidos a extração do DNA pelo método da proteinase K. A amplificação do fragmento isolado foi obtida pela reação em cadeia de polimerase seguida por clivagem, utilizando-se a enzima de restrição Mval. A eletroforese em gel de agarose permitiu a verificação da presença de mutações. Constatamos a presença de mutação no códon 12 do gene K-ras em dois dos 15 carcinomas de próstata estudados (13,3 por cento), sendo que nenhuma em pacientes com HPB. A ocorrência de mutação de 13,3 por cento na amostra da população brasileira analisada caracteriza uma incidência intermediária entre as populações japonesa e americana. É pouco provável que a mutação isolada do K-ras seja um evento significativo na carcinogênese prostática nesta população.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase is involved in motility of endothelial cell

Cell motility is essential for a wide range of cellular activities including anigogenesis as well as metastasis of tumor cells. Ras has been implicated in cell migration and invasion, and functions at upstream of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) families, which include extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK. In the present study, we examined the role of JNK in endothelial cell motility using stable transfectant (DAR-ECV) of ECV304 endothelial cells expressing previously established oncogenic H-Ras (leu 61). DAR-ECV cells showed an enhanced angiogenic potential and motility (approximately 2-fold) compared to ECV304 cells. Western blot analysis revealed constitutive activation of JNK in DAR-ECV cells. Pretreatment of JNK specific inhibitors, curcumin and all trans-retinoic acid, decreased the basal motility of DAR-ECV cells in a dose-dependent manner. These inhibitors also suppressed the motility stimulated by known JNK agonists such as TNFalpha and anisomycin. To further confirm the role of JNK, ECV304 cells expressing dominant active SEK1 (DAS-ECV) were generated. Basal non-stimulated levels of the cellular migration were greater in DAS-ECV clones than those in control ECV304 cells. These results suggest that Ras-SEK1-JNK pathway regulates motility of endothelial cells during angiogenesis.

Activación de los protooncogenes K-ras y c-erbB-2 en adenocarcinomas colónicos humanos / Activation of K-ras and c-erbB-2 protooncogenes in human colonic adenocarcinomas

Aunque los datos de las alteraciones genéticas que conducen al desarrollo de cáncer colorectal son abundantes, las alteraciones genéticas específicas para cada clase de tumor no han sido demostradas. El fenotipo cáncer colorectal es originado por la acumulación de diferentes alteraciones genéticas. La naturaleza de esas alteraciones, su orden de aparición y sus asociaciones, varian ampliamente de un tumor a otro, sugiriendo que el concepto de un modelo único de carcinogénesis no es aplicable a estos tumores. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue estudiar la asociación entre las mutaciones en los protooncogenes K-ras y c-erbB-2 con diferentes variables clinicopatológicas en 54 muestras de adenocarcinomas de colon. La detección de la activación de K-ras en 16 casos fue hecha mediante PCR alelo específica. Para la detección de la amplificación genética en c-erbB-2 se empleó un método de coamplificación por PCR con gen de copia única como referencia. Fueron detectadas mutaciones en K-ras en 16 casos (29,63 por ciento) y amplificación en c-erbB-2 en una muestra (1,85 por ciento). El análisis estadístico mostró una asociación significativa entre frecuencia de mutaciones en el codón 12 de K-ras y el estadio B de Dukes (p<0.005). Por otra parte, no se encontró asociación alguna con los otros parámetros estudiados. Estos resultados indicarian que la activación del protooncogén K-ras podría ocurrir en estadíos tempranos de la enfermedad.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase is involved in motility of endothelial cell

Cell motility is essential for a wide range of cellular activities including anigogenesis as well as metastasis of tumor cells. Ras has been implicated in cell migration and invasion, and functions at upstream of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) families, which include extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK. In the present study, we examined the role of JNK in endothelial cell motility using stable transfectant (DAR-ECV) of ECV304 endothelial cells expressing previously established oncogenic H-Ras (leu 61). DAR-ECV cells showed an enhanced angiogenic potential and motility (approximately 2-fold) compared to ECV304 cells. Western blot analysis revealed constitutive activation of JNK in DAR-ECV cells. Pretreatment of JNK specific inhibitors, curcumin and all trans-retinoic acid, decreased the basal motility of DAR-ECV cells in a dose-dependent manner. These inhibitors also suppressed the motility stimulated by known JNK agonists such as TNFalpha and anisomycin. To further confirm the role of JNK, ECV304 cells expressing dominant active SEK1 (DAS-ECV) were generated. Basal non-stimulated levels of the cellular migration were greater in DAS-ECV clones than those in control ECV304 cells. These results suggest that Ras-SEK1-JNK pathway regulates motility of endothelial cells during angiogenesis.

Circulating DNA in plasma or serum

Small amounts of DNA circulate in both healthy and diseased human plasma/serum, and increased concentrations of DNA are present in the plasma of cancer patients. Characteristics of tumor DNA have been found in genetic material extracted from the plasma of cancer patients. These features include decreased strand stability, the presence of specific oncogene or tumor suppressor gene mutations, microsatellite alterations, Ig rearrangements and hypermethylation of several genes. The results obtained in many different cancers have opened a new research area indicating that plasma DNA might eventually be a suitable target for the development of noninvasive diagnostic, prognostic and follow-up tests for cancer. Following the discovery of tumor derived DNA in plasma or serum, cell-free fetal DNA has also been found in maternal plasma and serum. This discovery provides an easily accessible source of fetal genetic material for prenatal diagnosis.

The renin--angiotensin system gene polymorphisms and clinicopathological correlations in IgA nephropathy.

Genetic variability in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) may modify renal responses to injury and disease progression. We examined whether RAS alleles affect severity of IgA nephropathy. These genetic variants include angiotensin I converting enzyme deletion polymorphism in intron 16 (ACE I/D), a point mutation in the angiotensinogen (AGT) gene resulting in a methionine to threonine substitution at residue 235 (M235T) and an angiotensin receptor type I (ATR) A to C transition at bp 1166 (A 1166 C). A total of 53 patients with biopsy-proven IgA nephropathy and 80 normal control subjects were recruited for study. These patients were classified into two groups according to serum creatinine at renal biopsy. Group 1 patients (n = 40) had normal renal function, serum creatinine < or = 1.5 mg/dl and group 2 patients (n = 13) had renal insufficiency with serum creatinine > 1.5 mg/dl. The blood pressure and urinary protein of group 2 patients were higher than group 1 (p < 0.01). The mean scores of histological parameters including mesangial proliferation, glomerular sclerosis (global and segmental), the interstitial fibrosis and crescent formation in group 2 patients were significantly higher than in group 1 patients (p < 0.05). The most frequent genotype in IgA patients was ID (47%) genotype, followed by II (45%) and DD (8%) genotype of ACE gene. The mean serum ACE activity in the DD group was significantly higher than in the II group (p < 0.05) but was not significantly different from that of the ID group. No statistically significant differences were found with respect to allele frequencies between IgA group 1, group 2, or between controls and all IgA patients. Furthermore, no significant difference in AGT alleles, ATR alleles frequencies was detected between groups of IgA patients, although a trend for a higher frequency of DD genotype and AGT-TT genotype were noted in IgA group 2. The combined analysis of the ACE-DD and AGT-TT genotypes did not show any genetic influence on the risk of the disease susceptibility. To resolve the true role of ACE genotype and any dependent effect on progression, larger collaborative studies are required.

Genetic alterations in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas

The genetic alterations observed in head and neck cancer are mainly due to oncogene activation (gain of function mutations) and tumor suppressor gene inactivation (loss of function mutations), leading to deregulation of cell proliferation and death. These genetic alterations include gene amplification and overexpression of oncogenes such as myc, erbB-2, EGFR and cyclinD1 and mutations, deletions and hypermethylation leading to p16 and TP53 tumor suppressor gene inactivation. In addition, loss of heterozygosity in several chromosomal regions is frequently observed, suggesting that other tumor suppressor genes not yet identified could be involved in the tumorigenic process of head and neck cancers. The exact temporal sequence of the genetic alterations during head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) development and progression has not yet been defined and their diagnostic or prognostic significance is controversial. Advances in the understanding of the molecular basis of head and neck cancer should help in the identification of new markers that could be used for the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of the disease